Acharya Gautama (or Aksapada as he is sometimes called) was the founder of the Vedic system of Nyaya (logic and rhetoric) and is considered to be the author of the Nyaya-sutras (aphorisms on logic) consisting of 528 verses. Gautama’s Nyaya system is also known as Anviksiki, or the science of critical study.
Gautama has sometimes been equated with the Greek philosopher Aristotle. However, Gautama’s system of logic differs from Aristotelian logic as it is much more than logic in its own right. Followers of Nyaya (Nyayanikas) believe that through the process of obtaining valid knowledge of things one could secure release from material bondage. Gautama and his followers therefore took great pains in identifying valid sources of knowledge and distinguishing them from invalid sources.
Nyaya is an extremely complex philosophical doctrine with various aspects. For example, Nyaya divides perceivable and imperceivable reality into sixteen divisions (padarthas) that are:
1) pramana, the sources of knowledge
2) prameya, the object of knowledge
3) samsaya, doubt or the state of uncertainty
4) prayojana, the aim
5) drstanta, example
6) siddhanta, doctrine
7) ayayava, the constituents of inference
8) tarka, hypothetical argument
9) nirnaya, conclusion
10) badha, discussion
11) jalpa, wrangling
12) vitanda, irrational argument
13) hetvabhasa, specious reasoning
14) chala, unfair reply
15) jati, generality based on a false analogy
16) nigrahsthana, the grounds for defeat
Nyayanikas also says that there are four sources of obtaining knowledge (pramana):
Pratyaksa (direct perception): This source occupies the foremost position in Nyaya and is divided into two types – a) Laukika or ordinary perception as attained through the senses and b) Alaukika or extra-ordianry.
Anumana (inference): Anumana is one of the most important contributions of Nyaya to Indian philosophy. According to Gautama there are two types of inference – svarthanumana, or inference for oneself and parathanumana, inference for others. Gautama also gives a detailed analysis of error explaining how anumana can sometimes also be false.
Upamana (comparison): Upamana refers to the relationship between a word and an object that is referred to by the word, produced by the understanding of a knowledge of similarity.
Sabda (testimony): Sabda is of two types – Vaidika, or the words of the Vedas, and Laukika, or the words of humans who are trustworthy.
The methodology of inference involves a combination of induction and deduction by moving from particular to particular via generality. It has five steps, as in the example shown:
* There is fire on the hill (called Pratijna, required to be proved)
* Because there is smoke there (called Hetu, reason)
* Wherever there is fire, there is smoke (called Udaharana, ie, example)
* There is smoke on the hill (called Upanaya, reaffirmation)
* Therefore there is fire on the hill (called Nigamana, conclusion)
Nyaya also accepts 12 divisions of prameyas (objects of cognition). These are:
Atma - the individual conscious unit
Sarira - the material body
Indriyas - the sense organs
Artha - the objects of the senses
Buddhi - cognition
Manas - the mind
Pravrti - activity
Dosa - mental defects
Pretyabhava - life and death
Phala - the results of pleasure and pain
Duhkha - suffering
Apavarga - permanent relief from all suffering.
Nyaya maintains that material suffering is caused by a misunderstanding of these twelve aspects of reality. Once these twelve are percieved correctly, one attains freedom from suffering.
In his philosophy Gautama gives various arguments for the existence of both finite consciousness (atma) and infinite consciousness (Brahman). Nyaya holds that the atma is eternal in nature because it is not limited by space or time. It also accepts that there are an infinite number of atmas. One’s own atma can be known through mental perception, whereas someone elses atma can only be inferred.
Nyaya says that Brahman is the efficient cause of creation, maintainance and dissolution. Brahman creates all substances from eternal atoms of space, time, mind and consciousness. Brahman causes these atoms to hold together and continue their existence in a particular order to maintain the physical universe. Gautama states that Brahman must exist because the substances made from atoms cannot be the cause of themselves since they lack consciousness. They recquire the guidance of intelligence. The cause of such materials must have direct knowledge of all matter and all atoms that underline all matter. The finite atma cannot be the cause because it is unaware of other atmas (except by inference), whereas the infinite consciousness (Brahman) must obviously be omnipresent and omniscient.
Furthermore, Nyaya inquires why some people are happy and others are unhappy. To claim that each individual suffers or attains happiness randomly is not logical. Gautama postulates that this must be due to the law of cause and effect (karma). Such a law is not of itself and by itself – it lacks intelligence and therefore must be guided by a higher principle, an intelligent agent who directs karma through the proper channels to produce proper consequences.
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Gautama - Rational Vedanta —Eastern & Western Schools of Thought — Pythagoras — Plato — Socrates — Vyasa — Narada — Sukadeva
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