Acharya Gautama (2-3rd Century BCE) Poineer of Logic

Acharya Gautama (or Aksapada as he is sometimes called) was the founder of the Vedic system of Nyaya (logic and rhetoric) and is considered to be the author of the Nyaya-sutras (aphorisms on logic) consisting of 528 verses. Gautama’s Nyaya system is also known as Anviksiki, or the science of critical study.

Gautama has sometimes been equated with the Greek philosopher Aristotle. However, Gautama’s system of logic differs from Aristotelian logic as it is much more than logic in its own right. Followers of Nyaya (Nyayanikas) believe that through the process of obtaining valid knowledge of things one could secure release from material bondage. Gautama and his followers therefore took great pains in identifying valid sources of knowledge and distinguishing them from invalid sources.

Nyaya is an extremely complex philosophical doctrine with various aspects. For example, Nyaya divides perceivable and imperceivable reality into sixteen divisions (padarthas) that are:

1) pramana, the sources of knowledge
2) prameya, the object of knowledge
3) samsaya, doubt or the state of uncertainty
4) prayojana, the aim
5) drstanta, example
6) siddhanta, doctrine
7) ayayava, the constituents of inference
8) tarka, hypothetical argument
9) nirnaya, conclusion
10) badha, discussion
11) jalpa, wrangling
12) vitanda, irrational argument
13) hetvabhasa, specious reasoning
14) chala, unfair reply
15) jati, generality based on a false analogy
16) nigrahsthana, the grounds for defeat

Nyayanikas also says that there are four sources of obtaining knowledge (pramana):

Pratyaksa (direct perception): This source occupies the foremost position in Nyaya and is divided into two types – a) Laukika or ordinary perception as attained through the senses and b) Alaukika or extra-ordianry.
Anumana (inference): Anumana is one of the most important contributions of Nyaya to Indian philosophy. According to Gautama there are two types of inference – svarthanumana, or inference for oneself and parathanumana, inference for others. Gautama also gives a detailed analysis of error explaining how anumana can sometimes also be false.
Upamana (comparison): Upamana refers to the relationship between a word and an object that is referred to by the word, produced by the understanding of a knowledge of similarity.
Sabda (testimony): Sabda is of two types – Vaidika, or the words of the Vedas, and Laukika, or the words of humans who are trustworthy.
The methodology of inference involves a combination of induction and deduction by moving from particular to particular via generality. It has five steps, as in the example shown:

* There is fire on the hill (called Pratijna, required to be proved)

* Because there is smoke there (called Hetu, reason)

* Wherever there is fire, there is smoke (called Udaharana, ie, example)

* There is smoke on the hill (called Upanaya, reaffirmation)

* Therefore there is fire on the hill (called Nigamana, conclusion)

Nyaya also accepts 12 divisions of prameyas (objects of cognition). These are:

Atma - the individual conscious unit
Sarira - the material body
Indriyas - the sense organs
Artha - the objects of the senses
Buddhi - cognition
Manas - the mind
Pravrti - activity
Dosa - mental defects
Pretyabhava - life and death
Phala - the results of pleasure and pain
Duhkha - suffering
Apavarga - permanent relief from all suffering.
Nyaya maintains that material suffering is caused by a misunderstanding of these twelve aspects of reality. Once these twelve are percieved correctly, one attains freedom from suffering.

In his philosophy Gautama gives various arguments for the existence of both finite consciousness (atma) and infinite consciousness (Brahman). Nyaya holds that the atma is eternal in nature because it is not limited by space or time. It also accepts that there are an infinite number of atmas. One’s own atma can be known through mental perception, whereas someone elses atma can only be inferred.

Nyaya says that Brahman is the efficient cause of creation, maintainance and dissolution. Brahman creates all substances from eternal atoms of space, time, mind and consciousness. Brahman causes these atoms to hold together and continue their existence in a particular order to maintain the physical universe. Gautama states that Brahman must exist because the substances made from atoms cannot be the cause of themselves since they lack consciousness. They recquire the guidance of intelligence. The cause of such materials must have direct knowledge of all matter and all atoms that underline all matter. The finite atma cannot be the cause because it is unaware of other atmas (except by inference), whereas the infinite consciousness (Brahman) must obviously be omnipresent and omniscient.

Furthermore, Nyaya inquires why some people are happy and others are unhappy. To claim that each individual suffers or attains happiness randomly is not logical. Gautama postulates that this must be due to the law of cause and effect (karma). Such a law is not of itself and by itself – it lacks intelligence and therefore must be guided by a higher principle, an intelligent agent who directs karma through the proper channels to produce proper consequences.

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Gautama - Rational Vedanta —Eastern & Western Schools of Thought — Pythagoras — Plato — Socrates — Vyasa — Narada — Sukadeva

Brahmagupta (628 AD) - the Mathematician

Brahmagupta was born in 598 CE in Bhinmal city in the state of Rajasthan of northwest India. He likely lived most of his life in Bhillamala (modern Bhinmal in Rajasthan) in the empire of Harsha during the reign (and possibly under the patronage) of King Vyaghramukha. As a result, Brahmagupta is often referred to as Bhillamalacarya, that is, the teacher from Bhillamala Bhinmal. He was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, and during his tenure there wrote four texts on mathematics and astronomy: the Cadamekela in 624, the Brahmasphutasiddhanta in 628, the Khandakhadyaka in 665, and the Durkeamynarda in 672. The Brahmasphutasiddhanta (Corrected Treatise of Brahma) is arguably his most famous work. The historian al-Biruni (c. 1050) in his book Tariq al-Hind states that the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun had an embassy in India and from India a book was brought to Baghdad which was translated into Arabic as Sindhind. It is generally presumed that Sindhind is none other than Brahmagupta's Brahmasphuta-siddhanta.

Although Brahmagupta was familiar with the works of astronomers following the tradition of Aryabhatiya, it is not known if he was familiar with the work of Bhaskara I, a contemporary. Brahmagupta had a plethora of criticism directed towards the work of rival astronomers, and in his Brahmasphutasiddhanta is found one of the earliest attested schisms among Indian mathematicians. The division was primarily about the application of mathematics to the physical world, rather than about the mathematics itself. In Brahmagupta's case, the disagreements stemmed largely from the choice of astronomical parameters and theories. Critiques of rival theories appear throughout the first ten astronomical chapters and the eleventh chapter is entirely devoted to criticism of these theories, although no criticisms appear in the twelfth and eighteenth chapters.

Latadeva (505 AD), Astronomer

Latadeva the author of "Soorya Siddhanta", talked about the earth's axis and called it SUMERU. "That the earth is a sphere and it rotates on its own axis", was known to Varahamihira and other Indian astronomers much before Copernicus published this theory. Latadeva in his Surya siddhanta text has divided the year into 12 months. Seven planets of the solar system effect the earth's atmosphere and their names were added to the seven days of the week, which was accepted all over the world.

Acharya Chanakya (350-286 BCE) Pioneer of Economics & Political Science

Chanakya c. 350–283 BCE) born to Rashi Canak was an adviser to the first Maurya Emperor Chandragupta (c. 340-293 BCE), and was the chief architect of his rise to power. Kautilya and Vishnugupta, the names by which the ancient Indian political treatise called the Arthaśāstra identifies its author, are traditionally identified with Chanakya. Chanakya has been considered as the pioneer of the field of economics and political science. In the Western world, he has been referred to as The Indian Machiavelli, although Chanakya's works predate Machiavelli's by about 1,800 years. Chanakya was a teacher in Takṣaśila, an ancient centre of learning, and was responsible for the creation of Mauryan empire, the first of its kind on the Indian subcontinent. His works were lost near the end of the Gupta dynasty and not rediscovered until 1915.

He was the master of shrewd act of diplomacy. He believed in four ways— Sama, Dana, Danda, Bheda (treating with Equality, Enticement, Punishment or War and Sowing Dissension.) Two books are attributed to Chanakya:

Arthashastra and Neetishastra:

The Arthashastra discusses monetary and fiscal policies, welfare, international relations, and war strategies in detail.

Neetishastra is a treatise on the ideal way of life, and shows Chanakya's in-depth study of the Indian way of life. Chanakya also developed Neeti-Sutras (aphorisms - pithy sentences) that tell people how they should behave. Of these well-known 455 sutras, about 216 refer to raaja-neeti (the do's and don'ts of running a kingdom). Apparently, Chanakya used these sutras to groom Chandragupt and other selected disciples in the art of ruling a kingdom.

Acharya Kapila (3000 BCE) - Father of Cosmology

Celebrated as the founder of Sankhya philosophy (Study of Knowledge), Acharya Kapila is believed to have been born in 3000 BCE to the illustrious sage Kardama and Devahuti. He gifted the world with the Sankhya School of Thought. His pioneering work threw light on the nature and principles of the ultimate Soul (Purusha), primal matter (Prakruti) and creation.

His concept of transformation of energy and profound commentaries on atma, non-atma and the subtle elements of the cosmos places him in an elite class of master achievers - incomparable to the discoveries of other cosmologists. On his assertion that Prakruti, with the inspiration of Purusha, is the mother of cosmic creation and all energies, he contributed a new chapter in the science of cosmology. Because of his extrasensory observations and revelations on the secrets of creation, he is recognized and saluted as the Father of Cosmology.

Acharya Bharadwaja (800 BCE) - Pioneer of Aviation Technology

Acharya Bharadwaja had a hermitage in the holy city of Prayag and was an ordent apostle of Ayurveda and mechanical sciences. He authored the " Yantra Sarvasva " which includes astonishing and outstanding discoveries in aviation science, space science and flying machines.

He has described three categories of flying machines:

1.) One that flies on earth from one place to another.

2.) One that travels from one planet to another.

3.) And One that travels from one universe to another. His designs and descriptions have impressed and amazed aviation engineers of today.

His brilliance in aviation technology is further reflected through techniques described by him:

1.) Profound Secret: The technique to make a flying machine invisible through the application of sunlight and wind force.

2.) Living Secret: The technique to make an invisible space machine visible through the application of electrical force.

3.) Secret of Eavesdropping: The technique to listen to a conversation in another plane.

4.) Visual Secrets: The technique to see what's happening inside another plane.
Through his innovative and brilliant discoveries, Acharya Bharadwaja has been recognized as the pioneer of aviation technology.

Acharya Patanjali (200 BCE) - Father of Yoga

The Science of Yoga is one of several unique contributions of India to the world. It seeks to discover and realize the ultimate Reality through yogic practices. Acharya Patanjali , the founder, hailed from the district of Gonda (Ganara) in Uttar Pradesh . He prescribed the control of prana (life breath) as the means to control the body, mind and soul. This subsequently rewards one with good health and inner happiness.

Acharya Patanjali's 84 yogic postures effectively enhance the efficiency of the respiratory, circulatory, nervous, digestive and endocrine systems and many other organs of the body. Yoga has eight limbs where Acharya Patanjali shows the attainment of the ultimate bliss of God in union with Him through the disciplines of: Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dhyana, Dharana & Samadhi. The Science of Yoga has gained popularity because of its scientific approach and benefits. Yoga also holds the honored place as one of six philosophies in the Indian philosophical system. Acharya Patanjali will forever be remembered and revered as a pioneer in the science of self-discipline, happiness and self-realization.

Varahmihira (499-587 CE) - Eminent Astrologer and Astronomer

A renowned astrologer and astronomer who was honored with a special decoration and status as one of the nine gems in the court of King Vikramaditya in Avanti (Ujjain ). Varahamihira' s book "panchsiddhant" holds a prominent place in the realm of astronomy. He notes that the moon and planets are lustrous not because of their own light but due to sunlight.

In the " Bruhad Samhita " and " Bruhad Jataka ," he has revealed his discoveries in the domains of geography, constellation, science, botany and animal science. In his treatise on botanical science, Varamihira presents cures for various diseases afflicting plants and trees. The rishi-scientist survives through his unique contributions to the science of astrology and astronomy.

Acharya Sushruta (600 BCE) - Father of Plastic Surgery

A genius who has been glowingly recognized in the annals of medical science. Born to sage Vishwamitra, Acharya Sudhruta details the first ever surgery procedures in " Sushruta Samhita ," a unique encyclopedia of surgery. He is venerated as the father of plastic surgery and the science of anesthesia. When surgery was in its infancy in Europe , Sushruta was performing Rhinoplasty (restoration of a damaged nose) and other challenging operations. In the " Sushruta Samhita ," he prescribes treatment for twelve types of fractures and six types of dislocations. His details on human embryology are simply amazing.

Sushruta used 125 types of surgical instruments including scalpels, lancets, needles, Cathers and rectal speculums; mostly designed from the jaws of animals and birds. He has also described a number of stitching methods; the use of horse's hair as thread and fibers of bark. In the " Sushruta Samhita ," and fibers of bark. In the " Sushruta Samhita ," he details 300 types of operations. The ancient Indians were the pioneers in amputation, caesarian and cranial surgeries. Acharya Sushruta was a giant in the arena of medical science.

Acharya Charaka (600 BCE) - Father of Medicine

Acharya Charaka has been crowned as the Father of Medicine. His renowned work, the " Charaka Samhita ", is considered as an encyclopedia of Ayurveda. His principles, diagoneses, and cures retain their potency and truth even after a couple of millennia. When the science of anatomy was confused with different theories in Europe , Acharya Charaka revealed through his innate genius and enquiries the facts on human anatomy, embryology, pharmacology, blood circulation and diseases like diabetes, tuberculosis, heart disease, etc. In the " Charak Samhita " he has described the medicinal qualities and functions of 100,000 herbal plants.

He has emphasized the influence of diet and activity on mind and body. He has proved the correlation of spirituality and physical health contributed greatly to diagnostic and curative sciences. He has also prescribed and ethical charter for medical practitioners two centuries prior to the Hippocratic oath. Through his genius and intuition, Acharya Charaka made landmark contributions to Ayurvedal. He forever remains etched in the annals of history as one of the greatest and noblest of rishi-scientists.

Nagarjuna (100 CE) - Wizard of Chemical Science

He was an extraordinary wizard of science born in the nondescript village of Baluka in Madhya Pradesh . His dedicated research for twelve years produced maiden discoveries and inventions in the faculties of chemistry and metallurgy. Textual masterpieces like " Ras Ratnakar ," "Rashrudaya" and "Rasendramangal" are his renowned contributions to the science of chemistry.

Where the medieval alchemists of England failed, Nagarjuna had discovered the alchemy of transmuting base metals into gold. As the author of medical books like "Arogyamanjari" and "Yogasar," he also made significant contributions to the field of curative medicine. Because of his profound scholarliness and versatile knowledge, he was appointed as Chancellor of the famous University of Nalanda . Nagarjuna's milestone discoveries impress and astonish the scientists of today.

Acharya Kanada (600 BCE) - Founder of Atomic Theory

As the founder of " Vaisheshik Darshan "- one of six principal philosophies of India - Acharya Kanada was a genius in philosophy. He is believed to have been born in Prabhas Kshetra near Dwarika in Gujarat . He was the pioneer expounder of realism, law of causation and the atomic theory. He has classified all the objects of creation into nine elements, namely: earth, water, light, wind, ether, time, space, mind and soul.

He says, "Every object of creation is made of atoms which in turn connect with each other to form molecules." His statement ushered in the Atomic Theory for the first time ever in the world, nearly 2500 years before John Dalton . Kanada has also described the dimension and motion of atoms and their chemical reactions with each other. The eminent historian, T.N. Colebrook , has said, "Compared to the scientists of Europe , Kanada and other Indian scientists were the global masters of this field."

Bhaskaracharya || (1114-1183 CE) - Genius in Algebra

Born in the obscure village of Vijjadit (Jalgaon) in Maharastra, Bhaskaracharya' s work in Algebra, Arithmetic and Geometry catapulted him to fame and immortality. His renowned mathematical works called "Lilavati" and "Bijaganita" are considered to be unparalled and a memorial to his profound intelligence. Its translation in several languages of the world bear testimony to its eminence.

In his treatise " Siddhant Shiromani " he writes on planetary positions, eclipses, cosmography, mathematical techniques and astronomical equipment. In the " Surya Siddhant " he makes a note on the force of gravity: "Objects fall on earth due to a force of attraction by the earth. Therefore, the earth, planets, constellations, moon, and sun are held in orbit due to this attraction." Bhaskaracharya was the first to discover gravity, 500 years before Sir Isaac Newton . He was the champion among mathematicians of ancient and medieval India . His works fired the imagination of Persian and European scholars, who through research on his works earned fame and popularity.

Aryabhatta (476 CE) - Master Astronomer and Mathematician

Born in 476 CE in Kusumpur ( Bihar ), Aryabhatta's intellectual brilliance remapped the boundaries of mathematics and astronomy. In 499 CE, at the age of 23, he wrote a text on astronomy and an unparallel treatise on mathematics called "Aryabhatiyam. " He formulated the process of calculating the motion of planets and the time of eclipses. Aryabhatt was the first to proclaim that the earth is round, it rotates on its axis, orbits the sun and is suspended in space - 1000 years before Copernicus published his heliocentric theory.

He is also acknowledged for calculating p (Pi) to four decimal places: 3.1416 and the sine table in trigonometry. Centuries later, in 825 CE, the Arab mathematician, Mohammed Ibna Musa credited the value of Pi to the Indians, "This value has been given by the Hindus." And above all, his most spectacular contribution was the concept of zero without which modern computer technology would have been non-existent. Aryabhatt was a colossus in the field of mathematics.